DEEP WORK

Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA elements with characteristic copy numbers within the host. These replicons have been found in species from the three representatives of the living world, namely, the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya (318). Plasmids may constitute a substantial amount of the total genetic content of an organism, representing more than 25% of the genetic material of the cell..

Phages are naturally-occurring bacterial viruses which infect specific species or strains of bacteria. There are 2 general types of phages, lytic and lysogenic.   Lytic phages infect host bacteria through a process involving attachment of the phage to the bacterium; insertion of the phage genome into the host cell; cessation in the synthesis of host components; host mediated replication of phage..

3.3. Biofilm Degradation and Killing of Bacteria in Biofilms by PhagesColonization of wounds, surgically implanted materials or catheters by biofilm-producing bacteria such as P. aeruginosa and S. aureus is a common complication for modern surgical and orthopedic practices. Biofilm formation helps bacteria to evade the patient immune system and enhances antibiotic resistance. A biofilm is a comm..

Cells must be able to rapidly respond to changes in their external environment — such as temperature or nutrient availability — to exploit and survive in new conditions. availability 이용할 수 있는exploit 이용하다 Even cells in a multicellular organism need to respond to developmental cues such as signalling molecules to determine when to divide, migrate or die. multicellular 다세포의developmental 발달상의 cues 단..

Limiting inflammatory responsesImmune responses induced by PRRs and by antigenspecific receptors are often highly potent and sterilizing. However, they may also be relatively disruptive and can be associated with tissue damage and the requirement for significant tissue repair and energy consumption119. Many of the constitutive immune mechanisms discussed here not only interfere with microbial r..

The use of the viruses of bacteria, bacteriophages (phages), as therapeutic agents to treat bacterial infections began 20 years before the first clinical use of an antibiotic drug, but the introduction of broad-spectrum antibiotics in the 1940s rapidly eclipsed and displaced the development of phage therapeutics in much of the world. therapeutic agents 약제 drug 약물broad-spectrum 폭넓은 효능을 지닌therapeu..

Degenerative mechanismsThe second class of constitutive innate immune mechanisms functions through the degradation of danger molecules and elimination of unwanted cells. This class of mechanisms includes autophagy, phagocytosis, proteasomal degradation and nucleases (Table 1). Collectively, degenerative programmes function to continually limit danger signals, allowing for the rapid elimination o..

Targeting microbial replicationDirect inhibition of microbial replication is executed by molecules that interfere with specific steps in the replication cycle of a given microorganism. There are at least six mechanisms of action in this category: restriction factors that directly block a specific replication step; restriction factors that deplete molecules essential for replication; RNA interfer..

A major challenge for living organisms is to maintain homeostasis in response to changes in external and internal environments. These include alterations in nutrient and water supplies, physical stress, temperature changes, physiological stress, infections and malignancies.  homeostasis 항상성 alteration 변화malignancy 악성종양 Through billions of years of evolution, the forms of life and biological proc..

5. Mucosal BarriersFish can interact with their surroundings through mucosal barriers while still maintaining homeostasis. Mucosal barriers (Figure 1) are extremely complex tissues with special adaptations that enhance a variety of physiological functions, including immunity, gas exchange, and nutrition. interact 상호작용하다homeostasis 항상성 physiological 생리학적으로   The principal mucosa-associated lympho..