DEEP WORK

1. IntroductionInterferons (IFNs) are virus inducible cytokines that share antiviral properties. IFNs are classified into three subfamilies, type I, II and III, on the basis of the cognate receptors they interact with and the subsequent immune responses they initiate. They differ also in genomic structure and the cell sources producing them. In tetrapods, both type I and III families contain mul..

MALThe second adaptor in the TIR-domain-containing adaptor family to be discovered was MAL54,55. MAL is required for signalling by TLR2 and TLR4, serving as a bridge to recruit MyD88 (REFS 54–58). A dominantnegative version, in which the Box 2 proline in MAL was mutated to a histidine, resulted in the inhibition of TLR4 signalling, but not IL-1 signalling55. In addition, a peptide based on the B..

IntroductionProtein secretion is required for numerous aspects of the bacterial life cycle, including organelle biogenesis, nutrient acquisition, and virulence-factor expression. Gram-negative bacteria face a special challenge in this regard, as secreted proteins must cross the periplasm and the outer membrane (OM) in addition to the cytoplasmic or inner membrane (IM). Secretion is defined in th..

IntroductionIn the past decade, trogocytosis (named from the ancient Greek trogo-, which means gnaw or nibble) has been attracting increasing attention in the vast fields of biology research, including immunology, microbiology, neurology, and developmental biology [1–7]. Trogocytosis is an active process, in which one cell rapidly acquires the fraction of another cell in a cell contact-dependent..

TROGOCYTOSISTrogocytosis, a form of cell-to-cell interaction widely existing in a species or between different species, involves one cell contacting and quickly “biting” another cell. This interaction was first described in 1970 as part of the process of parasites attacking and killing host cells (1). In 2002,it was given its name from the ancient Greek word “trogo”, which means “nibbling” to de..

IntroductionThe defence system of vertebrates uses sophisticated microbial recognition patterns as a defence mechanism against microbial invasion. On the other hand, pathogens exerts their own invasion and pathogenesis mechanism that are (in most cases) capable of overcoming host defence mechanism, and subsequently establishing infection. The immune defence mechanism including the recognition sy..

INTRODUCTIONThe group of bacterial protein toxins termed pore-forming toxins (PFT) belongs to the family of toxins called membrane-damaging toxins (MDT) which possess the ability to damage or disrupt the integrity of the plasma membrane of various eukaryotic cells (impairment of osmotic balance) reflected by cell swelling and subsequently cell lysis (Bhakdi and Tranum-Jensen 1988; Menestrina and..

INTRODUCTIONBacterial infections are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and bacteria can cause infections in nearly all host tissues. Furthermore, health care-associated urinary tract infections, pneumonia, skin and soft tissue infections, invasive bloodstream infections, and surgical-wound infections are increasingly common (1, 2). The usual method of treating bacterial infec..

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are of interest to immunologists because of their front-line role in the initiation of innate immunity against invading pathogens1 . The signalling pathways activated by different TLRs have therefore been the focus of much research. TLR signalling involves a family of five adaptor proteins, which couple to downstream protein kinases that ultimately lead to the activati..

INTRODUCTIONThe innate immune system is the first line of host defense that induces immediate, non-specific immune responses against pathogens (1). Inflammation is part of the innate immune system and is initiated when the innate immune system recognizes invading pathogens or molecules from tissue injury through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and inflamm..